Pull vfs open-related updates from Al Viro:
- "do we need fput() or put_filp()" rules are gone - it's always fput()
now. We keep track of that state where it belongs - in ->f_mode.
- int *opened mess killed - in finish_open(), in ->atomic_open()
instances and in fs/namei.c code around do_last()/lookup_open()/atomic_open().
- alloc_file() wrappers with saner calling conventions are introduced
(alloc_file_clone() and alloc_file_pseudo()); callers converted, with
much simplification.
- while we are at it, saner calling conventions for path_init() and
link_path_walk(), simplifying things inside fs/namei.c (both on
open-related paths and elsewhere).
* 'work.open3' of git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/viro/vfs: (40 commits)
few more cleanups of link_path_walk() callers
allow link_path_walk() to take ERR_PTR()
make path_init() unconditionally paired with terminate_walk()
document alloc_file() changes
make alloc_file() static
do_shmat(): grab shp->shm_file earlier, switch to alloc_file_clone()
new helper: alloc_file_clone()
create_pipe_files(): switch the first allocation to alloc_file_pseudo()
anon_inode_getfile(): switch to alloc_file_pseudo()
hugetlb_file_setup(): switch to alloc_file_pseudo()
ocxlflash_getfile(): switch to alloc_file_pseudo()
cxl_getfile(): switch to alloc_file_pseudo()
... and switch shmem_file_setup() to alloc_file_pseudo()
__shmem_file_setup(): reorder allocations
new wrapper: alloc_file_pseudo()
kill FILE_{CREATED,OPENED}
switch atomic_open() and lookup_open() to returning 0 in all success cases
document ->atomic_open() changes
->atomic_open(): return 0 in all success cases
get rid of 'opened' in path_openat() and the helpers downstream
...
alloc_file_clone(old_file, mode, ops): create a new struct file with
->f_path equal to that of old_file. pipe converted.
Acked-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
... so that it could set both ->f_flags and ->f_mode, without callers
having to set ->f_flags manually.
Signed-off-by: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
... just use put_pipe_info() to get the pipe->files down to 1 and let
fput()-called pipe_release() do freeing.
Acked-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
The poll() changes were not well thought out, and completely
unexplained. They also caused a huge performance regression, because
"->poll()" was no longer a trivial file operation that just called down
to the underlying file operations, but instead did at least two indirect
calls.
Indirect calls are sadly slow now with the Spectre mitigation, but the
performance problem could at least be largely mitigated by changing the
"->get_poll_head()" operation to just have a per-file-descriptor pointer
to the poll head instead. That gets rid of one of the new indirections.
But that doesn't fix the new complexity that is completely unwarranted
for the regular case. The (undocumented) reason for the poll() changes
was some alleged AIO poll race fixing, but we don't make the common case
slower and more complex for some uncommon special case, so this all
really needs way more explanations and most likely a fundamental
redesign.
[ This revert is a revert of about 30 different commits, not reverted
individually because that would just be unnecessarily messy - Linus ]
Cc: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: Christoph Hellwig <hch@lst.de>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
This is the mindless scripted replacement of kernel use of POLL*
variables as described by Al, done by this script:
for V in IN OUT PRI ERR RDNORM RDBAND WRNORM WRBAND HUP RDHUP NVAL MSG; do
L=`git grep -l -w POLL$V | grep -v '^t' | grep -v /um/ | grep -v '^sa' | grep -v '/poll.h$'|grep -v '^D'`
for f in $L; do sed -i "-es/^\([^\"]*\)\(\<POLL$V\>\)/\\1E\\2/" $f; done
done
with de-mangling cleanups yet to come.
NOTE! On almost all architectures, the EPOLL* constants have the same
values as the POLL* constants do. But they keyword here is "almost".
For various bad reasons they aren't the same, and epoll() doesn't
actually work quite correctly in some cases due to this on Sparc et al.
The next patch from Al will sort out the final differences, and we
should be all done.
Scripted-by: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
The pipe buffer limits are accessed without any locking, and may be
changed at any time by the sysctl handlers. In theory this could cause
problems for expressions like the following:
pipe_user_pages_hard && user_bufs > pipe_user_pages_hard
... since the assembly code might reference the 'pipe_user_pages_hard'
memory location multiple times, and if the admin removes the limit by
setting it to 0, there is a very brief window where processes could
incorrectly observe the limit to be exceeded.
Fix this by loading the limits with READ_ONCE() prior to use.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20180111052902.14409-8-ebiggers3@gmail.com
Signed-off-by: Eric Biggers <ebiggers@google.com>
Acked-by: Kees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>
Acked-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Cc: Alexander Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Willy Tarreau <w@1wt.eu>
Cc: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: "Luis R . Rodriguez" <mcgrof@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
round_pipe_size() calculates the number of pages the requested size
corresponds to, then rounds the page count up to the next power of 2.
However, it also rounds everything < PAGE_SIZE up to PAGE_SIZE.
Therefore, there's no need to actually translate the size into a page
count; we just need to round the size up to the next power of 2.
We do need to verify the size isn't greater than (1 << 31), since on
32-bit systems roundup_pow_of_two() would be undefined in that case. But
that can just be combined with the UINT_MAX check which we need anyway
now.
Finally, update pipe_set_size() to not redundantly check the return value
of round_pipe_size() for the "invalid size" case twice.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20180111052902.14409-7-ebiggers3@gmail.com
Signed-off-by: Eric Biggers <ebiggers@google.com>
Acked-by: Kees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>
Acked-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Cc: Alexander Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: "Luis R . Rodriguez" <mcgrof@kernel.org>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: Willy Tarreau <w@1wt.eu>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
pipe-user-pages-hard and pipe-user-pages-soft are only supposed to apply
to unprivileged users, as documented in both Documentation/sysctl/fs.txt
and the pipe(7) man page.
However, the capabilities are actually only checked when increasing a
pipe's size using F_SETPIPE_SZ, not when creating a new pipe. Therefore,
if pipe-user-pages-hard has been set, the root user can run into it and be
unable to create pipes. Similarly, if pipe-user-pages-soft has been set,
the root user can run into it and have their pipes limited to 1 page each.
Fix this by allowing the privileged override in both cases.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20180111052902.14409-4-ebiggers3@gmail.com
Fixes: 759c01142a ("pipe: limit the per-user amount of pages allocated in pipes")
Signed-off-by: Eric Biggers <ebiggers@google.com>
Acked-by: Kees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>
Acked-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Cc: Alexander Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: "Luis R . Rodriguez" <mcgrof@kernel.org>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: Willy Tarreau <w@1wt.eu>
Cc: <stable@vger.kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
Patch series "pipe: buffer limits fixes and cleanups", v2.
This series simplifies the sysctl handler for pipe-max-size and fixes
another set of bugs related to the pipe buffer limits:
- The root user wasn't allowed to exceed the limits when creating new
pipes.
- There was an off-by-one error when checking the limits, so a limit of
N was actually treated as N - 1.
- F_SETPIPE_SZ accepted values over UINT_MAX.
- Reading the pipe buffer limits could be racy.
This patch (of 7):
Before validating the given value against pipe_min_size,
do_proc_dopipe_max_size_conv() calls round_pipe_size(), which rounds the
value up to pipe_min_size. Therefore, the second check against
pipe_min_size is redundant. Remove it.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/20180111052902.14409-2-ebiggers3@gmail.com
Signed-off-by: Eric Biggers <ebiggers@google.com>
Acked-by: Kees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>
Acked-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Cc: Alexander Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: "Luis R . Rodriguez" <mcgrof@kernel.org>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: Willy Tarreau <w@1wt.eu>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
pipe_max_size is assigned directly via procfs sysctl:
static struct ctl_table fs_table[] = {
...
{
.procname = "pipe-max-size",
.data = &pipe_max_size,
.maxlen = sizeof(int),
.mode = 0644,
.proc_handler = &pipe_proc_fn,
.extra1 = &pipe_min_size,
},
...
int pipe_proc_fn(struct ctl_table *table, int write, void __user *buf,
size_t *lenp, loff_t *ppos)
{
...
ret = proc_dointvec_minmax(table, write, buf, lenp, ppos)
...
and then later rounded in-place a few statements later:
...
pipe_max_size = round_pipe_size(pipe_max_size);
...
This leaves a window of time between initial assignment and rounding
that may be visible to other threads. (For example, one thread sets a
non-rounded value to pipe_max_size while another reads its value.)
Similar reads of pipe_max_size are potentially racy:
pipe.c :: alloc_pipe_info()
pipe.c :: pipe_set_size()
Add a new proc_dopipe_max_size() that consolidates reading the new value
from the user buffer, verifying bounds, and calling round_pipe_size()
with a single assignment to pipe_max_size.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/1507658689-11669-4-git-send-email-joe.lawrence@redhat.com
Signed-off-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Reported-by: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Reviewed-by: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: Jens Axboe <axboe@kernel.dk>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Randy Dunlap <rdunlap@infradead.org>
Cc: Josh Poimboeuf <jpoimboe@redhat.com>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
round_pipe_size() contains a right-bit-shift expression which may
overflow, which would cause undefined results in a subsequent
roundup_pow_of_two() call.
static inline unsigned int round_pipe_size(unsigned int size)
{
unsigned long nr_pages;
nr_pages = (size + PAGE_SIZE - 1) >> PAGE_SHIFT;
return roundup_pow_of_two(nr_pages) << PAGE_SHIFT;
}
PAGE_SIZE is defined as (1UL << PAGE_SHIFT), so:
- 4 bytes wide on 32-bit (0 to 0xffffffff)
- 8 bytes wide on 64-bit (0 to 0xffffffffffffffff)
That means that 32-bit round_pipe_size(), nr_pages may overflow to 0:
size=0x00000000 nr_pages=0x0
size=0x00000001 nr_pages=0x1
size=0xfffff000 nr_pages=0xfffff
size=0xfffff001 nr_pages=0x0 << !
size=0xffffffff nr_pages=0x0 << !
This is bad because roundup_pow_of_two(n) is undefined when n == 0!
64-bit is not a problem as the unsigned int size is 4 bytes wide
(similar to 32-bit) and the larger, 8 byte wide unsigned long, is
sufficient to handle the largest value of the bit shift expression:
size=0xffffffff nr_pages=100000
Modify round_pipe_size() to return 0 if n == 0 and updates its callers to
handle accordingly.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/1507658689-11669-3-git-send-email-joe.lawrence@redhat.com
Signed-off-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Reported-by: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Reviewed-by: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: Jens Axboe <axboe@kernel.dk>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Randy Dunlap <rdunlap@infradead.org>
Cc: Josh Poimboeuf <jpoimboe@redhat.com>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
Patch series "A few round_pipe_size() and pipe-max-size fixups", v3.
While backporting Michael's "pipe: fix limit handling" patchset to a
distro-kernel, Mikulas noticed that current upstream pipe limit handling
contains a few problems:
1 - procfs signed wrap: echo'ing a large number into
/proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size and then cat'ing it back out shows a
negative value.
2 - round_pipe_size() nr_pages overflow on 32bit: this would
subsequently try roundup_pow_of_two(0), which is undefined.
3 - visible non-rounded pipe-max-size value: there is no mutual
exclusion or protection between the time pipe_max_size is assigned
a raw value from proc_dointvec_minmax() and when it is rounded.
4 - unsigned long -> unsigned int conversion makes for potential odd
return errors from do_proc_douintvec_minmax_conv() and
do_proc_dopipe_max_size_conv().
This version underwent the same testing as v1:
https://marc.info/?l=linux-kernel&m=150643571406022&w=2
This patch (of 4):
pipe_max_size is defined as an unsigned int:
unsigned int pipe_max_size = 1048576;
but its procfs/sysctl representation is an integer:
static struct ctl_table fs_table[] = {
...
{
.procname = "pipe-max-size",
.data = &pipe_max_size,
.maxlen = sizeof(int),
.mode = 0644,
.proc_handler = &pipe_proc_fn,
.extra1 = &pipe_min_size,
},
...
that is signed:
int pipe_proc_fn(struct ctl_table *table, int write, void __user *buf,
size_t *lenp, loff_t *ppos)
{
...
ret = proc_dointvec_minmax(table, write, buf, lenp, ppos)
This leads to signed results via procfs for large values of pipe_max_size:
% echo 2147483647 >/proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size
% cat /proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size
-2147483648
Use unsigned operations on this variable to avoid such negative values.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/1507658689-11669-2-git-send-email-joe.lawrence@redhat.com
Signed-off-by: Joe Lawrence <joe.lawrence@redhat.com>
Reported-by: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Reviewed-by: Mikulas Patocka <mpatocka@redhat.com>
Cc: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Cc: Randy Dunlap <rdunlap@infradead.org>
Cc: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: Jens Axboe <axboe@kernel.dk>
Cc: Josh Poimboeuf <jpoimboe@redhat.com>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
Many source files in the tree are missing licensing information, which
makes it harder for compliance tools to determine the correct license.
By default all files without license information are under the default
license of the kernel, which is GPL version 2.
Update the files which contain no license information with the 'GPL-2.0'
SPDX license identifier. The SPDX identifier is a legally binding
shorthand, which can be used instead of the full boiler plate text.
This patch is based on work done by Thomas Gleixner and Kate Stewart and
Philippe Ombredanne.
How this work was done:
Patches were generated and checked against linux-4.14-rc6 for a subset of
the use cases:
- file had no licensing information it it.
- file was a */uapi/* one with no licensing information in it,
- file was a */uapi/* one with existing licensing information,
Further patches will be generated in subsequent months to fix up cases
where non-standard license headers were used, and references to license
had to be inferred by heuristics based on keywords.
The analysis to determine which SPDX License Identifier to be applied to
a file was done in a spreadsheet of side by side results from of the
output of two independent scanners (ScanCode & Windriver) producing SPDX
tag:value files created by Philippe Ombredanne. Philippe prepared the
base worksheet, and did an initial spot review of a few 1000 files.
The 4.13 kernel was the starting point of the analysis with 60,537 files
assessed. Kate Stewart did a file by file comparison of the scanner
results in the spreadsheet to determine which SPDX license identifier(s)
to be applied to the file. She confirmed any determination that was not
immediately clear with lawyers working with the Linux Foundation.
Criteria used to select files for SPDX license identifier tagging was:
- Files considered eligible had to be source code files.
- Make and config files were included as candidates if they contained >5
lines of source
- File already had some variant of a license header in it (even if <5
lines).
All documentation files were explicitly excluded.
The following heuristics were used to determine which SPDX license
identifiers to apply.
- when both scanners couldn't find any license traces, file was
considered to have no license information in it, and the top level
COPYING file license applied.
For non */uapi/* files that summary was:
SPDX license identifier # files
---------------------------------------------------|-------
GPL-2.0 11139
and resulted in the first patch in this series.
If that file was a */uapi/* path one, it was "GPL-2.0 WITH
Linux-syscall-note" otherwise it was "GPL-2.0". Results of that was:
SPDX license identifier # files
---------------------------------------------------|-------
GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note 930
and resulted in the second patch in this series.
- if a file had some form of licensing information in it, and was one
of the */uapi/* ones, it was denoted with the Linux-syscall-note if
any GPL family license was found in the file or had no licensing in
it (per prior point). Results summary:
SPDX license identifier # files
---------------------------------------------------|------
GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note 270
GPL-2.0+ WITH Linux-syscall-note 169
((GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note) OR BSD-2-Clause) 21
((GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note) OR BSD-3-Clause) 17
LGPL-2.1+ WITH Linux-syscall-note 15
GPL-1.0+ WITH Linux-syscall-note 14
((GPL-2.0+ WITH Linux-syscall-note) OR BSD-3-Clause) 5
LGPL-2.0+ WITH Linux-syscall-note 4
LGPL-2.1 WITH Linux-syscall-note 3
((GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note) OR MIT) 3
((GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note) AND MIT) 1
and that resulted in the third patch in this series.
- when the two scanners agreed on the detected license(s), that became
the concluded license(s).
- when there was disagreement between the two scanners (one detected a
license but the other didn't, or they both detected different
licenses) a manual inspection of the file occurred.
- In most cases a manual inspection of the information in the file
resulted in a clear resolution of the license that should apply (and
which scanner probably needed to revisit its heuristics).
- When it was not immediately clear, the license identifier was
confirmed with lawyers working with the Linux Foundation.
- If there was any question as to the appropriate license identifier,
the file was flagged for further research and to be revisited later
in time.
In total, over 70 hours of logged manual review was done on the
spreadsheet to determine the SPDX license identifiers to apply to the
source files by Kate, Philippe, Thomas and, in some cases, confirmation
by lawyers working with the Linux Foundation.
Kate also obtained a third independent scan of the 4.13 code base from
FOSSology, and compared selected files where the other two scanners
disagreed against that SPDX file, to see if there was new insights. The
Windriver scanner is based on an older version of FOSSology in part, so
they are related.
Thomas did random spot checks in about 500 files from the spreadsheets
for the uapi headers and agreed with SPDX license identifier in the
files he inspected. For the non-uapi files Thomas did random spot checks
in about 15000 files.
In initial set of patches against 4.14-rc6, 3 files were found to have
copy/paste license identifier errors, and have been fixed to reflect the
correct identifier.
Additionally Philippe spent 10 hours this week doing a detailed manual
inspection and review of the 12,461 patched files from the initial patch
version early this week with:
- a full scancode scan run, collecting the matched texts, detected
license ids and scores
- reviewing anything where there was a license detected (about 500+
files) to ensure that the applied SPDX license was correct
- reviewing anything where there was no detection but the patch license
was not GPL-2.0 WITH Linux-syscall-note to ensure that the applied
SPDX license was correct
This produced a worksheet with 20 files needing minor correction. This
worksheet was then exported into 3 different .csv files for the
different types of files to be modified.
These .csv files were then reviewed by Greg. Thomas wrote a script to
parse the csv files and add the proper SPDX tag to the file, in the
format that the file expected. This script was further refined by Greg
based on the output to detect more types of files automatically and to
distinguish between header and source .c files (which need different
comment types.) Finally Greg ran the script using the .csv files to
generate the patches.
Reviewed-by: Kate Stewart <kstewart@linuxfoundation.org>
Reviewed-by: Philippe Ombredanne <pombredanne@nexb.com>
Reviewed-by: Thomas Gleixner <tglx@linutronix.de>
Signed-off-by: Greg Kroah-Hartman <gregkh@linuxfoundation.org>
This was entirely automated, using the script by Al:
PATT='^[[:blank:]]*#[[:blank:]]*include[[:blank:]]*<asm/uaccess.h>'
sed -i -e "s!$PATT!#include <linux/uaccess.h>!" \
$(git grep -l "$PATT"|grep -v ^include/linux/uaccess.h)
to do the replacement at the end of the merge window.
Requested-by: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
This is a patch that provides behavior that is more consistent, and
probably less surprising to users. I consider the change optional, and
welcome opinions about whether it should be applied.
By default, pipes are created with a capacity of 64 kiB. However,
/proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size may be set smaller than this value. In this
scenario, an unprivileged user could thus create a pipe whose initial
capacity exceeds the limit. Therefore, it seems logical to cap the
initial pipe capacity according to the value of pipe-max-size.
The test program shown earlier in this patch series can be used to
demonstrate the effect of the change brought about with this patch:
# cat /proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size
1048576
# sudo -u mtk ./test_F_SETPIPE_SZ 1
Initial pipe capacity: 65536
# echo 10000 > /proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size
# cat /proc/sys/fs/pipe-max-size
16384
# sudo -u mtk ./test_F_SETPIPE_SZ 1
Initial pipe capacity: 16384
# ./test_F_SETPIPE_SZ 1
Initial pipe capacity: 65536
The last two executions of 'test_F_SETPIPE_SZ' show that pipe-max-size
caps the initial allocation for a new pipe for unprivileged users, but
not for privileged users.
Link: http://lkml.kernel.org/r/31dc7064-2a17-9c5b-1df1-4e3012ee992c@gmail.com
Signed-off-by: Michael Kerrisk <mtk.manpages@gmail.com>
Reviewed-by: Vegard Nossum <vegard.nossum@oracle.com>
Cc: Willy Tarreau <w@1wt.eu>
Cc: <socketpair@gmail.com>
Cc: Tetsuo Handa <penguin-kernel@I-love.SAKURA.ne.jp>
Cc: Jens Axboe <axboe@fb.com>
Cc: Al Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Signed-off-by: Andrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: Linus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>
